On August 10, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson issued Executive Order 2679-A creating the United States Food Administration. The U. S. Food Administration, operating in each state, was to:
Assure the supply, distribution, and conservation of food during the war
Facilitate transportation of food and prevent monopolies and hoarding
Maintain governmental power over foods by using voluntary agreements and a licensing system
Wilson also created two subsidiary organizations, the U. S. Grain Corporation and the U. S. Sugar Equalization Board.
This groundbreaking WWI legislation was created to enforce and regulate food consumption and production in WWI America. State and national governments called upon household consumers, food producers, and farmers to “eat less” and “be thankful that we have enough to share with those who fight for freedom.” As head of the Food Administration, Herbert Hoover wrote, “The whole great problem of winning the war rests primarily on one thing: the loyalty and sacrifice of the American people in the matter of food.” The Administration launched the “Food Will Win the War campaign between the years of 1917 through 1919, promoting moderation mostly through propaganda (or “publicity”) since Congress prohibited rationing.
Taking a closer look at some of the posters and advertisements printed in America will enrich our knowledge and understanding of Americans’ experience of the War and the foodstuffs Americans were producing or conserving in order to feed our
allies in Europe and the Americans living and fighting there during WWI.
By the time America entered the war in April 1917, European demand had exhausted food reserves and driven up prices. Since farmers could not increase production until the following year’s harvest, it became obvious that America would have to conserve food if it was to continue to feed not only itself, but its expanding army and allies. As seen in the “Eat More, Eat Less” poster published by the U.S. Food Administration, Americans on the home front were encouraged to eat less wheat, meat, sugar, and fats so that these items could be sent to the U.S. army and allies stationed in different parts of Europe.
Photo from Prints & Photographs, U.S. Library of Congress
Citizens were not only encouraged to eat less of these foods but were also encouraged to prepare and serve substitutes such as fish rather than beef or offal instead of the more familiar cuts of meat. Pictured right, this poster urges people to eat more fish in order to conserve beef.
Investigating and sharing the types of American foods that were available in WWI France and other European countries helps us better understand daily life as it was experienced by volunteers, nurses such as Alma A. Clarke, and American soldiers like Frank R. Steed, who were living and fighting there. Combining themes of famine, women, children, and war, this poster proclaims that saving wheat will help feed the women and children of France.
Food history provides an opportunity for developing a better understanding of broader WWI topics such as war propaganda, the Franco-American alliance, the role of women in the war (both at home and abroad), and a number of historical contexts such as political history, military history, and economic history. Wartime posters and advertisements are extremely valuable as visual and textual resources for a food history study of WWI.
Bibliography and Works Cited:
Cafer du Plessis, Elizabeth. “MEATLESS DAYS AND SLEEPLESS NIGHTS: FOOD, AGRICULTURE, AND ENVIRONMENT IN WORLD WAR I AMERICA.” PhD diss., Indiana University, 2009.
Hendee, A., Paul Stahr, Charles Edward Chambers, George Illian, artists. U.S. Food Administration (USFA). Educational Division, Advertising Section, 1917, in NARA’s Still Pictures Records Section. Special Media Archives, College Park, MD.
National Archives and Records Administration. Records of the U. S. Food Administration, Record Group 4.
Penfield, Edward, George Illian, Jack Sheridan, Montgomery Flagg, artists. U.S. Food Administration (USFA). Educational Division, Advertising Section, c.1917 and National War Garden Commission, c.1917. National Archives and Records Administration, Still Pictures Records Section, Special Media Archives: College Park, MD.
Ponder, Stephen, . “Popular Propaganda: The Food Administration in World War I,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 72:3 (1995): 539-550. Accessed November 13, 2015.
“Member of United States Food Administration.” ca.1917 – ca.1918. U.S. Food Administration Documents, AG15 Box 8. Herbert Hoover Presidential Library. West Branch, Iowa.
“Teaching With Documents: Sow the Seeds of Victory!: Posters from the Food Administration During World War I.” National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed November 12, 2015. https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/sow-seeds/
Poster artists: A. Hendee, Paul Stahr, Charles Edward Chambers, George Illian, U.S. Food Administration (USFA), Educational Division, Advertising Section, 1917, in NARA’s Still Pictures Records Section, Special Media Archives, College Park, MD.
Elizabeth Cafer du Plessis “MEATLESS DAYS AND SLEEPLESS NIGHTS: FOOD, AGRICULTURE, AND ENVIRONMENT IN WORLD WAR I AMERICA,” (PhD diss., Indiana University, 2009); “Member of United States Food Administration,” ca.1917 – ca.1918., U.S. Food Administration Documents, AG15 Box 8, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, Iowa.
Sandra Trenholm, “Food Conservation during WWI: “Food Will Win the War,” The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, Last modified on October 16, 2012, Accessed November 12, 2015 http://www.gilderlehrman.org/collections/treasures-from-the-collection/food-conservation-during-wwi-%E2%80%9Cfood-will-win-war%E2%80%9D ; Stephen Ponder, “Popular Propaganda: The Food Administration in World War I,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 72:3 (1995): 539-550. In his article, Ponder states that It is also important to remember that “when the United States entered the war in 1917 the term “propaganda” had not yet acquired the dark connotations of deceit and evil manipulation of public opinion that were so evident from the hindsight of the 1920s…the practice of propaganda – promoting the war effort by praising the nation’s cause and warning of its enemies – was little different than the use of “publicity,” which had been central to the reform cause before the war.”
National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the U. S. Food Administration, Record Group 4
National Archives Identifier: 512499
National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the U. S. Food Administration, Record Group 4
National Archives Identifier: 512499
Timothy Horning, “Food Will Win the War,” The PhillyHistory Blog: Discoveries from the City Archives, last modified June 22, 2011, Accessed on November 11, 2015 http://www.phillyhistory.org/blog/index.php/2011/06/food-will-win-the-war/
Horning “Food Will Win the War.”
“Eating Nose to Tail Meant more Meat for Europe in WWI,” American Food Roots: Features WWI, last modified Deccember 14, 2014, Accessed November 10, 2015 http://www.americanfoodroots.com/features/eating-nose-tail-meant-meat-europe-wwi/
Artists: Edward Penfield, George Illian, Jack Sheridan, Montgomery Flagg, U.S. Food Administration (USFA), Educational Division, Advertising Section, c.1917, and National War Garden Commission, c.1917, NARA, Still Pictures Records Section, Special Media Archives, (College Park, MD).
To the average World War I American, newspapers were the Twitter, Tumblr, Instagram, and Buzzfeed of Americans today. Newspapers offered a way for people to access, escape, and later remember the events of the war. There are, of course, still newspapers in circulation today, but we don’t depend on them to stay connected and up to date in the same way Americans in the 20th Century did. For the average American reader during the WWI era, newspapers were the best and most reliable option for up to date information. And, although nothing was completely safe from factual error and they didn’t have much choice in terms of how they got their news, many people saw their newspapers as being the most trustworthy way to stay informed.
Other options for news were few and far between but could include the likes of newsreels, word of mouth, and letters from loved ones (once America joined the war.) However, newsreels did tend to focus less on the news aspect of day to day life and erred toward entertainment rather than serious reporting in the 20th century. Although on a few occasions British newsreels during the pre-war era did show the christening of a few of their ships that would see combat, it wasn’t an avenue for journalism and reporting yet. The roll that newsreels did play seemed was as a popular way to disperse propaganda. This often left the newspapers reigning supreme as the best and most reliable source for news on the happenings of the world, war, and war effort.
Another aspect of print journalism at the time that gave newspapers and their editors an edge was the fact that papers had the advantage of being some of the first to get ‘hot off the press’ type news. Other sources either weren’t available yet or took longer to reach people. For example, waiting for word of mouth to circulate was both tedious and likely inaccurate, and waiting on mail could be slow; thus, newspapers were most frequent – producing at least one edition a day. Many newspapers however also had both a morning and evening edition, meaning those who had papers delivered or bought both editions were able to get a double dose of news for the day. When headlines like those below came rolling in, they would likely hear some additional news later in the day rather than have to wait until the next morning.
And, as much as the war seemed to take over the papers, they didn’t stop producing other content, either. Even with the war going on, even the most seemingly mundane topics made their way into the papers. Like the Kaiser’s horoscope and the YMCA ad encouraging women to learn how to fly, there were articles on a discussion of daylight savings time, using more of the metric system in our dealings with countries abroad, and ads discussing the latest ball. I found it to be quite easy to get swept up in the idea that war was all the newspapers talked about, but really, there were plenty of articles that discussed topics that were completely normal, and these likely offered people a reprieve from all the war-centric news.
According to this particular horoscope due to the alignment of certain planets a loss of property could be expected during his lifetime, which is claimed here to be the fall of the German Empire, and as you might be able to see in the first few words of the article the prediction has been dubbed “The Kaiser’s Evil Destiny.”
And, for those who are curious, a copy of a paper like the New York Times (where these headlines came from) would have cost buyer two cents per issue. After doing a little math to account for inflation, two cents in 1914 would equal 48 cents in 2015 whereas at the end of the war in 1918, two cents would equal 32 cents by today’s rates. There were also roughly at least 72 (73 including the NYT) different papers being published in the 20th century*. Besides my own rough estimate, there wasn’t a concrete guess at how many papers were in publication and circulation in the 20th Century. Many of those 72 papers were small town type papers as well.
Newspapers surprisingly had a life outside of the civilian realm, too. Soldiers of World War I were their authors. It was a practice that was more prevalent for European soldiers, particularly French and German troops, as they spent more time on the front lines and away from home than American soldiers did. The purpose of these papers was to give the soldiers an outlet in a time where there wasn’t one otherwise. Topics covered everything from picking fun at their jobs in the trenches and the absurdity of their day to day life in between days of fighting to humor and women. Though interestingly enough, many of the papers didn’t sling mud at their enemies, often attributing humor to them or not at all. The American version of this genre of newspapers was titledThe Stars and Stripes. It only ran as it is featured here from 1918-1919, but it looked like this:
Even after the war had ended in 1918 newspapers would still find a way to play a part. They found a like home in the scrapbooks of soldiers and nurses who had been abroad and of citizens who had stayed home. Although each scrapbook and its memories are individual and special to the person who made it, the one item that regularly seems to appear universally at least once in these scrapbooks is newspaper clippings. I have emphasized headlines as my pictorial evidence in this article for the sake of space and physical article length. But in a scrapbook, clippings could range many different topics and have many shapes and sizes. Take these images below for example. One is long enough to hang off the page and discusses naval intrigue while the other is neatly folded up and mentions the loss of the Frye for the Germans along with other topics. Newspapers offered a multifaceted approach to World War I for those who read them.
Newspapers played a vital role in allowing people to commemorate important events during the war, both broadly and personally. Helping to illustrate and pinpoint events both big and small with tangible evidence, allowed people to give context to personal letters along with other important life events that might have sat side by side in the same scrapbook. And although the idea of scrapbooking and commemorating life stories in this way wasn’t new, newspapers were able to serve a number of purposes throughout the war (and after) in allowing people to relate to, escape from, and then remember the war on their own terms and in their own way.
Library of Congress, “Stars and Stripes: The American Soldiers’ Newspaper of World War I, 1918-1919,” Library of Congress, Accessed November 16 2015. http://www.loc.gov/collections/stars-and-stripes/
New York Times, “ALLIED TROOPS RAID THE GERMAN TRENCHES,” New York Times, December 10, 1916.
New York Times,” Display Ad 96,” New York Times, November 11, 1918.
New York Times, “Stars Against Kaiser: Printed in 1911 Predicted Ruin,” New York Times, August 6, 1914.
Readex, “America’s Historical Newspapers,”America’s Historical Newspapers. Accessed November 17, 2015.
Nelson, Robert L. “Soldier Newspapers, in: 1914-1918-online,” International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2014-10-08. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15463/ie1418.10170.
Williams, Selina. “100 Legacies: The Lasting Impact of World War I,” Wall Street Journal. Accessed November 18, 2015. http://online.wsj.com/ww1/newsreels
Selina Williams, “100 Legacies: The Lasting Impact of World War I,” Wall Street Journal, November 18 2015, http://online.wsj.com/ww1/newsreels.
New York Times, “Stars Against Kaiser: Printed in 1911 Predicted Ruin,” The New York Times, August 6, 1914.
Inflation Calculator, November 17, 2015, http://www.usinflationcalculator.com/.
Readex, “America’s Historical Newspapers,”America’s Historical Newspapers, November 17, 2015, http://infoweb.newsbank.com.ezp1.villanova.edu/iw-search/we/HistArchive?p_product=EANX&p_action=timeframes&p_theme=ahnp&p_nbid=T69R62RWMTQ0Nzg2OTE3NC4zNTY3MjM6MToxMToxNTMuMTA0LjYuNA&p_clear_search=yes&d_refprod=EANX&.
Library of Congress, “Stars and Stripes: The American Soldiers’ Newspaper of World War I, 1918-1919,” Linbrary of Congress, November 16 2015, http://www.loc.gov/collections/stars-and-stripes/.
Library of Congress, “Stars and Stripes: The American Soldiers’ Newspaper of World War I, 1918-1919,” Linbrary of Congress, November 16 2015, http://www.loc.gov/collections/stars-and-stripes/.
Unknown, “Newspaper Scrapbook, World War I, 1915-1917,” Falvey Memorial Library Digital Library, September 3, 2014, http://digital.library.villanova.edu/Item/vudl%3A353124.
New York Times, “SEE SERB PLOT IN ROYAL MURDERS,” New York Ties, June 30, 1914.
New York Times, “ALLIED TROOPS RAID THE GERMAN TRENCHES,”New York Times, December 10, 1916.
New York Times,”Display Ad 96,” New York Times, November 11, 1918.
Robert L Nelson, “Soldier Newspapers, in: 1914-1918-online,” International Encyclopedia of the First World War, September 12, 2015, http://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/soldier_newspapers.
The Guardian, “How the newspapers covered the outbreak of the first world war,” The Guardian, August 4, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/04/firstworldwar-national-newspapers.
Humans have told war stories since time immemorial, but WWI was the first global conflict to be portrayed in movies. Silent films made between 1918 and 1927 reveal what Americans (and, in Charlie Chaplin’s case, their allies) thought of WWI as it happened and in its aftermath. These films likely provided water-cooler conversation for Alma Clarke and her coworkers, the way that contemporary Americans debate Scandal or Game of Thrones.
Gene Kelly hosts this vintage documentary about silent film. While a great source of information, the documentary is almost a primary source in its own right! Source: Hollywood: The Golden Years, directed by David L. Wolper (Wolper Productions, 1962), Internet Archive, file uploaded by scampbell3, accessed November 2, 2015, https://archive.org/details/hollywoodthegoldenyears.
Cinema, fiction magazines, and comic books displaced older forms of entertainment like the dime novel in the early twentieth century. Of these new diversions, films were unique because they gave Americans detailed, tangible fantasies. Movies also provided shrewd businessmen with a new product. By the 1910s, the film industry had robust centers in New York and Hollywood, churning out romances, serial adventures, Westerns, and more. Silent acting combined vaudeville, pantomime, and the larger-than-life style typical of theatre in this period. Even though films lacked sound, actors did do some sound work during WWI — exhorting people in public speeches to buy war bonds.
Photo of: “Douglas Fairbanks, movie star, speaking to a large crowd in front of the Sub-Treasury building, New York City, to aid the third Liberty Loan, in April 1918,” Wikimedia Commons, c/o Wikipedia, file uploaded by Paul Thompson, image in the Public Domain, accessed November 2, 2015, http://bit.ly/1Hc9Es7.
Hollywood churned out propaganda films, as well. The propaganda pictures initially supported neutrality in WWI, but as the public switched its support from neutrality to involvement, Hollywood adjusted its approach to the war.
Actor-director Charlie Chaplin had made a short war bonds film, titled simply The Bond, but his longer follow-up, 1918’s Shoulder Arms, proved to be his wartime masterpiece.
Source: The Bond, written and directed by Charlie Chaplin (First National Pictures, 1918), YouTube, file uploaded by Adrian A. [pseud.], accessed November 5, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlZeX3qMpi4.
Released two months before the armistice, Shoulder Arms takes Chaplin’s Little Tramp to Europe. Writing nearly fifty years later in his Autobiography, Chaplin recalled: “Why not make a comedy about the war? I told several friends of my intention, but they shook their heads. Said [Cecil B.] De Mille: ‘It’s dangerous at this time to make fun of the war.’ Dangerous or not, the idea excited me.” Chaplin’s film turns trench warfare into escapism. To be sure, Chaplin includes iconic elements of trench life, such as flooding, bad food, constant bombings, and loneliness. However, any moment of tension leads to humor or triumph. No one dies. The Tramp even gets to enjoy a wonderful daydream in which he captures the Kaiser. Great propaganda as well as a sublime comedy, Shoulder Arms became “a smash hit,” although Chaplin biographer Kenneth S. Lynn considers it more clichéd than ingenious today. The New York Times observed at the time, “There have been learned discussions as to whether Chaplin’s comedy is low or high, artistic or crude, but no one can deny that when he impersonates a screen fool[,] he is funny.”
Source: Shoulder Arms, written and produced by Charlie Chaplin (First National Pictures, September 1918), YouTube, file uploaded by "מתכונים טעימים ומהירים,שף- נט" [pseud.], accessed November 5, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rj6DIm119-g.
The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse is not a comedy, but rather a melodrama, although several scenes are so over-the-top that they are unintentionally funny today. The film began as Vicente Blasco Ibañez’s 1919 novel, which Philadelphia’s Catholic archdiocese panned:
The horrors of war are depicted with a realism that is so graphic as to be gruesome. Throughout the story there are unpardonable lapses into vulgarity and coarseness. In this respect the [book] … is perhaps less guilty than the author’s other novels. But this is not to say that either it or they are to be put in the hands of the indiscriminate reader. All in all, the book is one that is best avoided…
Nonetheless, both the novel and its 1921 film adaptation were enormous hits. The film of Horsemen turns WWI into a canvas for escapist romance. A French-Argentinian playboy (Rudolph Valentino), who dishonors his family with an adulterous pre-war romance, “only redeems himself by dying as a hero in World War I.” The destiny of the hero’s extended patrician family unfolds like propaganda: The French branch sacrifices and struggles to preserve old-world civilization, while their German cousins become unquestioning soldiers in the service of the Kaiser. Subtlety is not one of the film’s virtues, and Horsemen’s style trumps its questionable historical substance. Yet the film develops a peculiar power near the end, as Valentino goes to his death, his lover chooses to return to her husband, and Valentino’s father weeps over his son’s grave, amid thousands of identical crosses. Valentino became a matinee idol thanks to his good looks and his spellbinding tango scene, which helped to publicize Latin dance in the United States.
1925’s The Big Parade incorporates melodrama, but director King Vidor also highlighted the war’s brutality. Unlike Horsemen, which focused on elite officers and their families, Parade portrays the experiences of ordinary enlisted soldiers. The film is also ambivalent about the need for the war, as the climactic battle achieves nothing of apparent strategic value. To quote Vidor, “When a nation or a people go to war, the people go and do not ask why. But in this last war they asked one question at all times. It was, ‘Why do we have war?’” Audiences pondered that question in droves — The Big Parade outgrossed Horsemen.
Source: The Big Parade Souvenir Program (New York: The Gordon Press, c. 1926), Internet Archive, file uploaded by associate-jenna-risano [pseud.], accessed November 5, 2015, https://archive.org/details/bigparade00unse.
1927’s Wings, a romantic drama about WWI fighter pilots, received the first Best Picture Oscar. It is a film of enormous scale. The U.S. Army loaned the filmmakers real planes, empty land on a San Antonio military base (promptly transformed into wartime France), and over 3,000 real soldiers. Director William Wellman had been a WWI pilot, so he used his combat knowledge to coordinate the spectacular dogfight sequences. All of the actors flew in real planes. When seen today, Wings has the broad humor and sweet love story typical of an old Hollywood movie, but the film is remarkable for the authenticity of its battle scenes.
The centennial of WWI has sparked renewed interest in the conflict, leading to new dramas like Testament of Youth and Parade’s End. As good as these projects are, they lack the grit of silent films. The silent filmmakers often had to invent their production technologies as they went along; the roughshod nature of silent films is part of their charm. When the special effects work well, especially in Wings, the visuals are even more astonishing than modern films because everything is real. Silent films also have more thematic variety than the wholly serious WWI films that have premiered of late. Whether as propaganda, comedy, or drama, silent films preserve raw perceptions of the Great War.
To Learn More About…
New Entertainments in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries:
The Bond. Written and directed by Charlie Chaplin. First National Pictures, 1918. YouTube. File uploaded by Adrian A. [pseud.]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlZeX3qMpi4.
Pierce, David. The Survival of American Silent Feature Films: 1912–1929. National Film Preservation Board. Washington, D.C.: Council on Library and Information Resources and the Library of Congress, September 2013. http://www.loc.gov/today/pr/2013/files/2013silent_films_rpt.pdf.
Shoulder Arms. Written and produced by Charlie Chaplin. First National Pictures, September 1918. YouTube. File uploaded by “מתכונים טעימים ומהירים,שף- נט” [pseud.]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rj6DIm119-g.
What Price Glory. Directed by Raoul Walsh. Fox Film Corporation, 1926. YouTube. File uploaded by Dolores del Río [pseud.], May 9, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrRcNio9fmM.
Wings. Directed by William A. Wellman. Paramount Pictures, 1927; Hollywood, CA: Paramount Home Video, 2012. DVD.
Bibliography and Works Cited:
Primary Sources for WWI Films and Literature
Articles from the New York Times. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times (1857–1922).
Ibañez, Vicente Blasco. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, translated by Charlotte Brewster Jordan. New York: E.P. Dutton & Company, 1919; Moulin Digital Editions, 2014. Internet Archive. File uploaded by twimhoof [pseud.]. CC0 1.0 Universal. https://archive.org/details/TheFourHorsemenOfTheApocalypse_235.
Photo of: “Douglas Fairbanks, movie star, speaking to a large crowd in front of the Sub-Treasury building, New York City, to aid the third Liberty Loan, in April 1918.” Wikimedia Commons, c/o Wikipedia. File uploaded by Paul Thompson. Image in the Public Domain. http://bit.ly/1Hc9Es7.
Hollywood: “Hollywood Goes to War.” Written and directed by Kevin Brownlow and David Gill. Thames Television, 1980. YouTube. File uploaded by jamon2112. http://bit.ly/1QhKABU.
“Wings: Grandeur in the Sky” [documentary]. Wings. Directed by William A. Wellman. Paramount Pictures, 1927; Hollywood, CA: Paramount Home Video, 2012. DVD.
Charles Chaplin, My Autobiography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1964), 220–221; Wolper, Hollywood.
Endnote Four
Hollywood: “Hollywood Goes to War,” written and directed by Kevin Brownlow and David Gill (Thames Television, 1980), YouTube, file uploaded by jamon2112 [pseud.], accessed November 5, 2015, http://bit.ly/1QhKABU.
Endnote Five
The Bond, written and directed by Charlie Chaplin (First National Pictures, 1918), YouTube, file uploaded by Adrian A. [pseud.], accessed November 5, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlZeX3qMpi4; Kenneth S. Lynn, Charlie Chaplin and His Times (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 204.
Endnote Six
Shoulder Arms, written and produced by Charlie Chaplin, (First National Pictures, September 1918), YouTube, file uploaded by dosterian [pseud.], accessed November 5, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TxzEUtgCbNA. See also: “Display Ad 205 – No Title,” New York Times (1857–1922), November 24, 1918: 47, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times; “Two Opera Stars in Silent Films…,” New York Times (1857–1922), November 25, 1918: 11, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times.
Endnote Seven
Chaplin, My Autobiography, 220.
Endnote Eight
Chaplin, My Autobiography, 221.
Endnote Nine
Lynn, Chaplin, 222.
Endnote Ten
“Chaplin as Soldier Drops Old Disguise…,” New York Times(1857–1922), October 21, 1918: 15, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times.
Endnote Eleven
Vicente Blasco Ibañez, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, translated by Charlotte Brewster Jordan (New York: E.P. Dutton & Company, 1919; Moulin Digital Editions, 2014), Internet Archive, file uploaded by twimhoof [pseud.], CC0 1.0 Universal, accessed November 2, 2015, https://archive.org/details/TheFourHorsemenOfTheApocalypse_235.
Box Office Mojo.com adjusts for inflation and shows that Horsemen’s gross of $9,183,673 equals $382,959,200 in 2015 dollars [“All Time Box Office: Domestic Grosses, Adjusted for Ticket Price Inflation,” Box Office Mojo, accessed November 7, 2015, http://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/adjusted.htm]. See also: “Box office / business for The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,” IMDB, accessed November 7, 2015, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0012190/business; The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, directed by Rex Ingram (Metro Pictures, 1920), Internet Archive, file uploaded by Anastacia [pseud.], film in the Public Domain, accessed November 1, 2015, https://archive.org/details/The_Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse#.
The Big Parade, directed by King Vidor (MGM, 1925; Burbank, CA: Turner Entertainment and Warner Home Video, 2013), DVD; Brownlow and Gill, Hollywood: “Hollywood Goes to War”; Tim Dirks, “The Big Parade (1925),” AMC Filmsite: Movie Reviews, accessed November 7, 2015, http://www.filmsite.org/bigp.html.
Endnote Seventeen
“A Talk With King Vidor,” in The Big Parade Souvenir Program (New York: The Gordon Press, c. 1926), 11, Internet Archive, file uploaded by associate-jenna-risano [pseud.], accessed November 5, 2015, https://archive.org/stream/bigparade00unse#page/n11/mode/2up.
Brownlow and Gill, Hollywood: “Hollywood Goes to War”; Wings, directed by William A. Wellman (Paramount Pictures, 1927; Hollywood, CA: Paramount Home Video, 2012), DVD; “Wings: Grandeur in the Sky” [documentary], Wings, directed by William A. Wellman (Paramount Pictures, 1927; Hollywood, CA: Paramount Home Video, 2012), DVD.
